 First Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon, USMC Photograph Courtesy of the US Marine Corps First Barbary War: Battle of DerneConflict:The Battle of Derna took place during the First Barbary War. Date:William Eaton and First Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon captured Derna on April 27, 1805, and successfully defended it on May 13. Armies & Commanders:United States - William Eaton
- First Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon
- 10 US Marines and soldiers
- 200 Christian mercenaries
- 200-300 Muslim mercenaries
Tripoli - Hassan Bey
- approx. 4,000 men
Battle of Derna Summary:In 1804, during the fourth year of the First Barbary War, the former American consul to Tunis, William Eaton returned to the Mediterranean. Titled "Naval Agent to the Barbary States," Eaton had received support from the US government for a plan to overthrow the pasha of Tripoli, Yusuf Karamanli. After meeting with the commander of US naval forces in the area, Commodore Samuel Barron, Eaton traveled to Alexandria, Egypt with $20,000 to seek out Yusuf's brother Hamet. The former pasha of Tripoli, Hamet had been deposed in 1793, and then exiled by his brother in 1795. After contacting Hamet, Eaton explained that he wished to raise a mercenary army to help the former pasha regain his throne. Eager to retake power, Hamet agreed and work began to build a small army. Eaton was aided in this process by First Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon and eight US Marines, as well as Midshipman Pascal Peck. Assembling a ragtag group of around 500 men, mostly Arab, Greek, and Levantine mercenaries, Eaton and O'Bannon set off across the desert to capture the Tripolitan port of Derna. Departing Alexandria on March 8, 1805, the column moved along the coast pausing at El Alamein and Tobruk. Their march was supported from the sea by the warships USS Argus, USS Hornet, and USS Nautilus under the command of Master Commandant Isaac Hull. Shortly after the march began, Eaton, now referring to himself as General Eaton, was forced to deal with a growing rift between the Christian and Muslim elements in his army. This was made worse by the fact that his $20,000 had been used and money to fund the expedition was growing scarce. On at least two occasions, Eaton was forced to contend with near mutinies. The first involved his Arab cavalry and was put down at bayonet-point by O'Bannon's Marines. A second occurred when the column lost contact with Argus and food became scarce. Convincing his men to eat a pack camel, Eaton was able to stall until the ships reappeared. Pressing on through heat and sand storms, Eaton's force arrived near Derna on April 25 and was resupplied by Hull. After his demand for the city's surrender was refused, Eaton maneuvered for two days before initiating his attack. Dividing his force in two, he sent Hamet southwest to severe the road to Tripoli and then attack the western side of the city. Moving forward with the Marines and the other mercenaries, Eaton planned to assault the harbor fortress. Attacking on the afternoon of April 27, Eaton's force, supported by naval gunfire, met determined resistance as the city's commander, Hassan Bey, had reinforced the harbor defenses. This permitted Hamet to sweep into the western side of the city and capture the governor's palace. Grabbing a musket, Eaton personally led his men forward and was wounded in the wrist as they drove the defenders back. By the end of the day, the city had been secured and O'Bannon hoisted the US flag over the harbor defenses. It was the first time the flag had flown over a foreign battlefield. In Tripoli, Yusuf had been aware of the approach of Eaton's column and had dispatched reinforcements to Derna. Arriving after Eaton had taken the city, they briefly laid siege before assaulting it on May 13. Though they pushed Eaton's men back, the attack was defeated by fire from the harbor batteries and Hull's ships. Aftermath:The Battle of Derna cost Eaton a total of fourteen dead and several wounded. Of his force of Marines, two were killed and two wounded. O'Bannon and his Marines' role has been commemorated by the line "to the shores of Tripoli" in the Marine Corps Hymn as well as the adoption of the Mamaluke sword by the Corps. Following the battle, Eaton began planning a second march with the goal of taking Tripoli. Concerned about Eaton's success, Yusuf began suing for peace. Much to Eaton's displeasure, Consul Tobias Lear concluded a peace treaty with Yusuf on June 4, 1805, which ended the conflict. As a result, Hamet was sent back to Egypt, while Eaton and O'Bannon returned to the United States as heroes. |
Anglo-Zulu War: Battle of Isandlwana
From Kennedy Hickman,
Your Guide to Military History.
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Conflict:
The Battle of Isandlwana was part of the 1879 Anglo-Zulu War in South Africa.
Date:
The British were defeated on January 22, 1879.
Armies & Commanders:
British
- Lieutenant Colonel Henry Pulleine
- Lieutenant Colonel Anthony William Durnford
- 1,400 British, 2,500 African infantry
Zulu
- Ntshingwayo kaMAhole
- Mavumengwana kaMdlela Ntuli
- approx. 12,000 infantry
Battle Summary:
In December 1878, following the death of several British citizens at the hands of the Zulus, authorities in the South African province of Natal issued an ultimatum to the Zulu king Cetshwayo demanding that the perpetrators be turned over for trial. This request was refused and the British began preparations to cross the Tugela River and invade Zululand. Led by Lord Chelmsford, British forces advanced in three columns with one moving along the coast, another from the north and west, and the Centre Column advancing through Rourke's Drift towards Cetshwayo's base at Ulundi.
To counter this invasion, Cetshwayo mustered a massive army of 24,000 warriors. Armed with spears and old muskets, the army was divided in two with one section sent to intercept the British on the coast and the other to defeat the Centre Column. Moving slowly, Centre Column reached Isandlwana Hill on January 20, 1879. Making camp in the shadow of the rocky promontory, Chelmsford sent out patrols to locate the Zulus. The following day, a mounted force under Major Charles Dartnell encountered a strong Zulu force. Fighting through the night, Dartnell was not able to break off contact until early on the 22nd.
After hearing from Dartnell, Chelmsford resolved to move against the Zulus in force. At dawn, Chelmsford led 2,500 men and 4 guns out from Isandlwana to track down the Zulu army. Though badly outnumbered, he was confident that British firepower would adequately compensate for his lack of men. To guard the camp at Isandlwana, Chelmsford left 1,300 men, centered on the 1st Battalion of the 24th Foot, under Brevet Lieutenant Colonel Henry Pulleine. In addition, he ordered Lieutenant Colonel Anthony Durnford, with his five troops of native cavalry and a rocket battery, to join Pulleine.
On the morning of the 22nd, Chelmsford began vainly searching for the Zulus, unaware that they had slipped around his force and were moving on Isandlwana. Around 10:00 Durnford and his men arrived at the camp. After receiving reports of Zulus to the east, he departed with his command to investigate. At approximately 11:00, a patrol led by Lieutenant Charles Raw discovered the main body of the Zulu army in a small valley. Spotted by the Zulus, Raw's men began a fighting retreat back to Isandlwana. Warned of the Zulus' approach by Durnford, Pulleine began forming his men for battle.
An administrator, Pulleine had little experience in the field and rather than ordering his men to form a tight defensive perimeter with Isandlwana protecting their rear he ordered them into a standard firing line. Returning to the camp, Durnford's men took a position on the right of the British line. As they approached the British, the Zulu attack formed into the traditional horns and chest of the buffalo. This formation allowed the chest to hold the enemy while the horns worked around the flanks. As the battle opened, Pulleine's men were able to beat off the Zulu attack with disciplined rifle fire.
On the right, Durnford's men began run low on ammunition and withdrew to the camp leaving the British flank vulnerable. This coupled with orders from Pulleine to fall back towards the camp led to a collapse of the British line. Attacking from the flanks the Zulus were able to get between the British and the campsite. Overrun, British resistance was reduced to a series of desperate last stands as the 1st Battalion and Durnford's command were effectively wiped out.
Aftermath:
The Battle of Isandlwana proved to be the worst defeat ever suffered by British forces against native opposition. All told, the battle cost the British 858 killed as well as 471 of their African troops for a total of 1,329 dead. Casualties among the African forces tended to be lower as they filtered away from the battle during its early stages. Only 55 British soldiers managed to escape the battlefield. On the Zulu side, casualties were approximately 3,000 killed and 3,000 wounded.
Returning to Isandlwana that night, Chelmsford was stunned to find a bloody battlefield. In the wake of the defeat and the heroic defense of Rourke's Drift, Chelmsford set about regrouping British forces in the region. With the full support of London, which wished to see the defeat avenged, Chelmsford went on to defeat the Zulus at the Battle of Ulundi on July 4 and capture Cetshwayo on August 28.
Zulu Battle Sites
From Alistair Boddy-Evans,
Your Guide to African History.
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A selection of recommended Zulu Wars battle sites
The Zulu nation, forged by Shaka, was a powerful force in southern Africa. Invaded by Voortrekkers, subdued by the British, and eventually absorbed into South Africa, the many battles fought by Zulu warriors are a testament to its strength. Here are nine battle sites which are especially worth visiting…
Dingane's Kraal
Zulu histories record that the agreement reached at uMgungundlovu ('abode of the elephant' the site of Dingane's Krall) between Dingane and Piet Retief was made under duress; and faced with similar treatment handed out to Zulu leaders like Mzilikazi and Sekonyela, Dingane decided to eliminate the threat. Boer historians claim that the treaty was negotiated fairly and that Dingane had no reason to attack. Either way, on 6 February 1838, Piet Retief, 69 compatriots and 30 coloured attendants were clubbed to death to the cry of Bambani aba thakathi! ('Kill the wizards') on KwaMatiwane, the hill of execution. A memorial stands on the hill today, listing the names of the Boer victims.
Blood River
Three monuments commemorate the battle of 16 December 1838 – known as the Battle of Blood River if you were on the Boer side and the Battle of Ncome River if you were on the Zulu. It saw the blood of the slain Zulu warriors turn the Ncome River red – some 3000 bodies are said to have been counted (though history doesn’t tell us who undertook this grisly task) while the Voortrekkers suffered only a handful of wounded. The first monument was a granite ox wagon, put up on the centenary of the battle, followed by replica laager of full-size bronze ox wagons, and finally in 1999 the Ncome Museum to give a interpretation of the battle from the Zulu point of view. Isandlwana
When Chelmsford, acting on intelligence, split his force in the hope of engaging the Zulu, he laid the ground for the most important Zulu victory of the Anglo-Zulu War. A total force of around 1,700 men was left behind in camp, relatively unprepared for the approaching 25,000 Zulu warriors. On 22 January 1879 the camp was virtually wiped out. Isandlwana is famous for the number of memorial cairns erected to the British troops, and is probably the most visited battlefield in South Africa. Curiously it was only in 1999 that a memorial was erected to the Zulu fallen. The site is very imposing and you'll need a whole day to cover everything.
Rorke's Drift
After the massacre at Isandlwana no one would have predicted that the eight officers and 135 men at the re-supply depot of Rorke's Drift would hold off an attack by 4,000 Zulu warriors. But after 13 hours the Zulus withdrew. The 11 Victoria crosses are the largest number awarded to a single regiment, and the fourth largest for a single battle. Witt's old house now contains an excellent museum with dioramas and relics, and the building is still reminiscent of the original hospital. If you can, stay until dusk to experience the time of day when the battle was at it's height. Use the afternoon to walk up Oskarsberg Mountain for an excellent view of the site. Fugitives Drift, only 8km away, with the graves of Coghill and Melvill are on a private game reserve, get permission to visit.
Eshowe
Fort Eshowe, the place chosen by the British to prepare for the attack on Ulundi, was placed under siege for 10 weeks (2 February – 29 March 1879)before being relieved by Lord Chelmsford. Unfortunately the Mission station was burnt down and the place is not always now well kept, but it's proximity to other Anglo-Zulu war battle sites makes it an interesting addition to your route. Take the opportunity to visit Fort Nongqayi (and the Zululand Historical Museum) in the nearby town of Eshowe, with an excellent display on John Dunn (the only white man to become a Zulu chief, along with 49 wives) and the Bambatha Rebellion.
Zulu Battle Sites - Part 2
From Alistair Boddy-Evans,
Your Guide to African History.
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(Continued from Page 1)
More recommended Zulu Wars battle sites
Hlobane
You'll want a guide to get you round this site – they can arrange the permissions and access – but it is worth the trouble. With someone experienced you'll quickly be submerged in the events which led to the third Zulu victory of the Anglo-Zulu war (28 March 1879), and hear the tales of the massacre of Weatherley's Horse and the dramatic jump to freedom from the cliff top of trooper George Mossop and his Basuto pony Warrior. Note that the top of Hlobane is notorious for hidden holes, sheer cliffs and sudden changes of weather, so go prepared.
Khambula
This site is slightly off the beaten track. There is a marker post about 16 km north of Vryheid on the R33 which points the way – 5 km of dirt track takes you to the site of the British redoubt. Stand on the redoubt hill and imagine the British army fighting in all it's imperial glory against overwhelming numbers on 29 March 1879. The truth of the battle was that the Zulu army was somewhat disorganised, spurred on by its young bloods (and acting against King Cetshwayo's orders) they attacked in the usual 'horns of the bull' pattern. Unexpected boggy ground to the south west delayed the left horn, allowing the Brits to first deal exclusively with the right horn. After similarly wiping out the left horn, British cavalry turned the Zulu retreat into a rout.
Ulundi
The site of the final military defeat of the Zulu during the Anglo-Zulu War (4 July 1879), Ulundi is a must for any battlefield tour. There is a monument to the battle, which lies roughly where Chelmsford's square stood, as well as a cemetery for the British who fell here. Make sure you continue on to the Zulu Cultural Museum at oNindi, Cetshwayo's krall, where there is an excellent model of a Zulu settlement and a display of Zulu culture.
Mome Gorge
Nkandla Forest, approximately 20 km south of Nkandla hides the 600 m deep Mome River Gorge – the site of the last battle (10 June 1906) between the Zulu nation and British authorities in South Africa. It was here that the Bambatha (Poll-tax) Rebellion ended with Bambatha's death and decapitation (for identification purposes, of course). The area is also the last resting place of Cetshwayo kaMpande who died on 8 February 1884. It is well off the beaten track and you will need a reputable guide to get you there.
Napoleonic Wars: Battle of Corunna
From Kennedy Hickman,
Your Guide to Military History.
Conflict:
The Battle of Corunna was part of the Peninsular War, which was in turn part of the Napoleonic Wars.
Date:
Sir John Moore held off the French on January 16, 1809.
Armies & Commanders:
British
- Sir John Moore
- 16,000 infantry
- 9 guns
French
- Marshal Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult
- 12,000 infantry
- 4,000 cavalry
- 20 guns
Battle Summary:
Following the recall of Sir Arthur Wellesley after the signing of the Convention of Cintra in 1808, command of British forces in Spain devolved to Sir John Moore. Commanding 23,000 men, Moore advanced to Salamanca with the goal of supporting the Spanish armies that were opposing Napoleon. Arriving in the city, he learned that the French had defeated the Spanish which jeopardized his position. Reluctant to abandon his allies, Moore pressed on to Valladolid to attack the corps of Marshal Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult. As he neared, reports were received that Napoleon was moving against him the bulk of the French army.
Outnumbered more than two-to-one, Moore began a lengthy withdrawal towards Corunna in the northwest corner of Spain. There the ships of the Royal Navy waited to evacuate his men. As the British retreated, Napoleon turned the pursuit over to Soult. Moving through the mountains in cold weather, the British retreat was one of great hardship that saw discipline break down. Soldiers looted Spanish villages and many became drunk and were left for the French. As Moore's men marched, General Henry Paget's cavalry and Colonel Robert Craufurd's infantry fought several rearguard actions with Soult's men.
Arriving at Corunna with 16,000 men on January 11, 1809, the exhausted British were shocked to find the harbor empty. After waiting four days, the transports finally arrived from Vigo. While Moore planned the evacuation of his men, Soult's corps approached the port. To block the French advance, Moore formed his men south of Corunna between the village of Elvina and the shoreline. Late on the 15th, 500 French light infantry drove the British from their advance positions on the hills of Palavea and Penasquedo, while other columns pushed the 51st Regiment of Foot back up the heights of Monte Mero.
On the following day, Soult launched a general assault on the British lines with an emphasis on Elvina. After pushing the British out of the village, the French were promptly counterattacked by the 42nd Highlanders (Black Watch) and the 50th Foot. The British were able to retake the village, however their position was precarious. A subsequent French attack forced the 50th to retreat, causing the 42nd to follow. Personally leading his men forward, Moore and the two regiments charged back into Elvina.
Fighting was hand-to-hand and the British drove the French out at the point of the bayonet. At the moment of victory, Moore was struck down when a cannon ball hit him in the chest. With night falling, the final French attack was beaten back by Paget's cavalry. During the night and morning, the British withdrew to their transports with the operation protected by the guns of the fleet and the small Spanish garrison in Corunna. With the evacuation complete, the British set sail for England.
Aftermath:
British casualties for the Battle of Corunna were 800-900 dead and wounded. Soult's corps suffered 1,400-1,500 dead and wounded. While the British won a tactical victory at Corunna, the French had succeeded in driving their opponents from Spain. The Corunna campaign exposed issues with the British system of supply in Spain as well as a general lack of communication between them and their allies. These were addressed when the British returned to Portugal in May 1809, under the command of Sir Arthur Wellesley.
Selected Sources
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Wars of the French Revolution: Battle of Hohenlinden
From Kennedy Hickman,
Your Guide to Military History
Conflict:
The Battle of Hohenlinden was part of the War of the Second Coalition (1799-1802), which was in turn part of the Wars of the French Revolution/Napoleonic Wars.
Date:
General Jean Moreau defeated Archduke John on December 3, 1800.
Armies & Commanders:
French
- General Jean Moreau
- 56,000 men
Austrian Empire
Battle Summary:
In late 1800, the French Army of the Rhine, led by General Jean Victor Moreau, was operating approximately twenty miles east of Munich when it encountered a larger Austrian army led by the 18-year old Archduke John. On December 1, sharp fighting occurred at Ampfing with the Austrians forcing a rearguard under General Michel Ney to retire west. Following, the Archduke was pressured into offensive operations by his second-in-command, General Franz Lauer, and his chief-of staff, Franz von Weyrother. After learning of the Austrian pursuit, Moreau assumed a defensive position facing west near the village of Hohenlinden.
Marching west, von Weyrother designed the battle plan for attacking Moreau's position. This called for four columns, led by Generals Michael von Kienmayer, Maximilien de Baillet, Johann Kollowrat, and Johann Riesch, to move through the hilly, wooded terrain east of the village and strike the French line simultaneously. Due to the terrain, the columns were not mutually supporting and would be operating independently. Weyrother believed the French to be retreating and rushed the plan with the goal of catching them. The Archduke accompanied Kollowrat's column which as advancing down the main east-west road.
Aware of the Austrian's approach, Moreau arrayed four divisions north and south of Hohenlinden. These were led by Generals Claude Legrand, Louis Bastoul, Michel Ney, and Emmanuel, marquis de Grouchy. He also dispatched two divisions, under Generals Antoine Richepanse and Charles Decaen, south with orders to march around and strike at the Austrian left flank. Moreau would command the main line and would counterattack the Austrians as they emerged from the woods near the village. While each of the Austrian columns moved out at dawn, it was Kollowrat's, moving down the road, that struck the French first.
Opening the battle at the southern end of the French line around 7:00 AM, Kollowrat's troops attacked those of Grouchy. Shortly thereafter, von Kienmayer's column arrived farther north and began engaging the French line. The remaining two columns were badly delayed by the terrain and weather. At the south end of the field, Riesch's column was so far behind schedule that Richepanse's division passed in front of it while making its flanking march. As the Richepanse's troops were moving north, his division was cut in two by a pair of grenadier regiments sent back by Kollowrat to search for Riesch.
Detaching his rear-most brigade, led by Brigadier General Jean-Baptiste Drouet, and leaving them to fight the grenadiers, Richepanse reached the road and turned west towards Kollowrat's rear. To the north, Baillet, whose column still had not reached the fight began to lose his composure as he heard firing to both the west and south. Desperate to make contact, he dispersed his command in an effort to locate friendly forces. Near Hohenlinden, Kollowrat and von Kienmayer doggedly attacked Moreau's lines with little success.
Around noon, Decaen's division arrived to aid Drouet's beleaguered brigade. Blundering around the woods, Drouet and Decaen's men battled Riesch's column, ultimately forcing it to retreat west. After learning of the battle to his rear, the Archduke began sending element's of Kollowrat's command east to clear the road. These were defeated in turn by Richepanse. Sensing weakness on the part of the Austrians, Moreau ordered his men to attack. Advancing, they drove back von Kienmayer and nearly encircled Kollowrat's column. The battle lost, the Archduke fled and the army began a hasty retreat east.
Aftermath:
French casualties at the Battle of Hohenlinden numbered around 3,000 dead and wounded, while the Austrians suffered 4,600, as well as 9,000 captured and 76 guns lost. Slowly pursuing for five days, Moreau increased his pace on December 8 and covered 189 miles while capturing an additional 20,000 Austrians. On December 17, Archduke John was relieved by his brother Charles. With the army reduced to tatters, Charles was unable to stop Moreau's advance on Vienna. With the French 50 miles from the city, he requested an armistice on December 24. The Battle of Hohenlinden, along with Napoleon's victory at Marengo (June 14, 1800) effectively ended the War of the Second Coalition and led to the Treaty of Luneville and the Treaty of Amiens.
Selected Sources
Seven Years' War: Battle of Rossbach
Date: Frederick won his stunning victory on November 5, 1757.
Armies & Commanders:
Prussia
- King Frederick II, the Great
- 22,000 men, 79 guns
France, Holy Roman Empire, Austria
- Charles, Prince de Soubise
- Joseph Frederick William, Duke of Saxe-Hildburghausen
- 42,000 men, 45 guns
Following the outbreak of the Seven Years' War in 1756, Prussia found itself nearly surrounded by its enemies. Moving swiftly, King Frederick the Great marched on Saxony and defeated the Austrians at the Battle of Lobositz. With the Saxons dealt with, Frederick turned south and began a campaign to capture Prague. After winning a bloody victory near the city, he laid siege in May 1757. This was lifted following the Austrian victory at the Battle of Kolin. Withdrawing, Frederick's position was further weakened when the Russians invaded East Prussia.
Seeing an opportunity, France, the Holy Roman Empire, and Austria prepared to attack Prussia on multiple fronts. In the west, a an Allied army led by Charles, Prince de Soubise, began moving towards Prussia, while an Austrian army, under Charles of Lorraine, approached from the east. Assessing the situation, Frederick opted to deal with Soubise first. Marching from Dresden, Frederick's army traveled quickly, buying supplies along the way, and covering 170 miles in only thirteen days. After locating Soubise's army, the two commanders began several days of maneuvering with each trying to gain an advantage.
On November 5, Frederick's 22,000-man army was in camp near Rossbach, with the Soubise's army nearby to the west. Though he possessed nearly a 2-to-1 advantage in manpower, Soubise was reluctant to give battle and required urging from the Duke of Hildburghausen to take action. The two devised a plan calling for the army to march south around the Prussian flank and assume a position between Reichardtswerben and Pettstädt which would cut Frederick off from the resources of the Saale. While sound in concept, this plan did not account for the terrain which made most their movements visible to the Prussians.
That morning, Frederick watched the Allied columns begin their march from atop a house in Rossbach. While he initially believed Soubise to be retreating south towards his bases, this changed when it was observed that the Allies had turned east. Seeing an opportunity, Frederick ordered his men to break camp and prepare to attack. This movement was seen by Soubise who assumed Frederick was falling back to the east to avoid being flanked. Soubise's march had begun well, however after wheeling east, several of his columns became intermixed leading to some confusion in the ranks.
In addition, Soubise called up his cavalry with the goal of having them reach Reichardtswerben before the Prussians. Seeking to surprise the Allies, Frederick's army moved swiftly using the Janus Hugel (Hill) and the Pölzen Hugel to screen their movements. It was his intention to attack them from the east, which would either take them in the flank or crush the heads of their columns as they marched. To this end, General Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz and his cavalry raced east. The action began when Colonel von Moller opened fire with eighteen guns from atop the Janus Hugel.
As the artillery hit the Allies, the Prussian infantry came up in support. Near Reichardtswerben, Soubise's cavalry suddenly found itself isolated from the main army as von Seydlitz's men came riding down upon them. Driving the Allies south, the Prussian cavalry drove them from the field before rallying to rejoin the main battle. Near the Janus Hugel, the Prussian infantry was descending the slope and attacking the confused mass that was the Allied army. While Soubise's men vainly attempted to form a line of battle, several of his French regiments launched attacks against the Prussian lines.
These assaults were easily defeated. As the situation worsened for the Allies, von Seydlitz's cavalry returned to the field and charged their right flank. This attack shattered the Allied lines, and they fled the field. The entire battle took less than an hour and a half.
Aftermath
Allied casualties in the battle were around 5,000 dead/wounded and 5,000 captured. For the Prussians, the cost was a remarkably low 169 dead and 379 wounded. The Battle of Rossbach proved to be one of Frederick the Great's most dramatic victories. A month later, Frederick crushed the Austrians at the Battle of Leuthen ending the threat of invasion in 1757. So stunning was Frederick's Rossbach-Leuthen campaign that Napoleon later referred to as "a masterpiece in maneuver and resolution."
From Kennedy Hickman, About.Com:Military History, 11/12/07
World War I: Third Battle of Gaza
Conflict:
The Third Battle of Gaza took part during World War I.
Date:
Allenby won his victory over the Ottomans between October 31 and November 7, 1917.
Armies & Commanders:
British
- General Sir Edmund Allenby
- 82,500 infantry, 17,000 cavalry, 460 guns
Ottomans
- General Kress von Kressenstein
- General Eric von Falkenhayn
- 35,000-45,000 infantry, 1,500 cavalry, 500 guns
Beginning in early 1916, British forces under General Sir Archibald Murray began pushing across the Sinai Peninsula with the goal of attacking the Ottoman Empire in Palestine. To support this endeavor, Murray built rail lines and a freshwater pipeline across the desert to support a base south of Gaza. With this base in place, he ordered his subordinate, General Charles Dobell, to begin operations to take Gaza in early 1917. Moving forward, Dobell attacked the city on March 16 and was repulsed. A second assault on April 19 met a similar end and a stalemate ensued.
To break the deadlock, British War Office dispatched General Sir Edmund Allenby to take command in the region. Replacing Murray, Allenby opted to oversee military operations directly rather than delegating them to a subordinate. After reorganizing the troops under his command into three corps (XX Corps under Gen. Philip Chetwode, XXI Corps under Gen. Edward Bulfin, and the Desert Mounted Corps under Gen. Henry Chauvel), Allenby began devising a scheme for breaking through the Turkish defenses. The basis for his plan was originally the brainchild of Gen. Chetwode, and called for a flank attack at Beersheba.
Situated 30 miles from the coast, at the extreme eastern end of the Turkish line, Beersheba was lightly defended as Ottomans believed that extreme desert conditions precluded major operations in the area. Seeing an opportunity, Allenby and Chetwode began quietly moving water forward, creating "water dumps" and refilling ancient Roman cisterns near Beersheba. To divert the Turks' attention, XXI Corps actively demonstrated against Gaza. This ruse achieved its desired effect as the Turks' German commander, General Kress von Kressenstein, became convinced that the city was Allenby's primary objective.
Allenby's plan called for turning the Turkish flank at Beersheba and moving to encircle the forces defending Gaza. It was believed that the attack would force the Turks to shift their reserves away from Gaza, allowing an assault to be made there after the attack on Beersheba. The key to the entire plan was the rapid capture of the town on the first day of the offensive. On October 29, XX Corps and the Desert Mounted Corps began movements toward Beersheba. XXI Corps' demonstration proved so effective that Kressenstein believed this to be a minor movement.
Beginning on October 31, infantry from XX Corps began attacking Beersheba from the west, while the troopers of the Desert Mounted Corps advanced from the south and east. While the infantry took its objective on schedule, the cavalry was delayed by fierce resistance at Tel el Saba, just east of Beersheba. With the dusk approaching, Chauvel ordered the Australian 4th Light Horse Brigade to charge the Turkish positions. Under fire for four miles, the Australians succeeded in breaking the Turkish lines and forcing them to retreat. By nightfall, the town, and its wells, were secured.
Though the wells at Beersheba were taken, the water situation limited British actions and the mounted brigades could only operate away from the town for one day at a time. The delay imposed by this allowed the Turks to swing their line back from Hareira to Tel el Khuweilfe. Over the next four days, British mounted units rotated daily while attempting to take Tel el Khuweilfe. Though it would not be taken until November 8, the battle achieved the goal of drawing the Turkish reserves away from Gaza. On the night of November 2, Allenby began operations against Gaza with a night attack along the coast.
Advancing two miles, the British were able to hold their gains against determined Turkish counterattacks. The next assault came on the 6th, when Chetwode's XX Corps attacked the middle of the Turkish line near Sheria. Breaking through, Chetwode's men captured their objectives and were moving on the hill of Tel el Sheria when the Turks detonated a nearby ammunition dump, delaying their advance. The next day, XXI Corps captured Gaza, with the 52nd Division pursuing the retreating garrison up the coast. All along the British line Allenby's forces were advancing, however their efforts to encircle the retreating Turks were thwarted through series of sharp rearguard actions.
Aftermath
In the fighting along the Gaza-Beersheba line, the British lost a total of 18,000 killed, wounded, and missing. Turkish casualties numbered around 25,000 killed, wounded, and captured. Allenby's successful breaking of the Gaza-Beersheba defenses opened the road to Jerusalem which he occupied on December 9, 1917.
Selected Sources
Vietnam War: Battle of Dak To
Conflict:
The Battle of Dak To was a major engagement of the Vietnam War.
Dates:
Fought over nineteen days, the Battle of Dak To lasted from November 3 to November 22, 1967.
Armies & Commanders:
US & Republic of Vietnam
- Major General William R. Peers
- 16,000 men
North Vietnam & Viet Cong
- General Hoang Minh Thao
- Tran The Mon
- 6,000 men
In the summer of 1967, the People's Army of Vietnam (PAVN) initiated a series of attacks in western Kontum Province. To counter these, Major General William R. Peers commenced Operation Greeley using elements of the 4th Infantry Division and the 173rd Airborne Brigade. This was designed to sweep PAVN forces from the jungle-covered mountains of the region. After a series of sharp engagements, contact with PAVN forces diminished in August leading the Americans to believe that they had withdrawn back across the border into Cambodia and Laos.
After a quiet September, US intelligence reported that PAVN forces around Pleiku were moving into Kontum in early October. This shift increased PAVN strength in the area to around division level. The PAVN plan was to utilize the 24th, 32nd, 66th, and 174th regiments to isolate and destroy a brigade-sized American force near Dak To. It was believed by the PAVN command that this would lead to the further deployment of American troops to the border regions which would leave South Vietnam's cities and lowlands vulnerable. To deal with this build up of PAVN forces, Peers launched Operation MacArthur on November 3.
Peer's understanding of the enemy's intentions and strategy was greatly enhanced on November 3, following the defection of PAVN Sgt. Vu Hong. Alerted to each PAVN unit's location and objective, Peers' men began engaging the enemy the same day, disrupting the North Vietnamese plans for attacking Dak To. As elements of the 4th Infantry, 173rd Airborne, and the 1st Brigade of the 1st Air Cavalry went into action they found that the North Vietnamese had prepared elaborate defensive positions on the hills and ridges around Dak To.
Over the ensuing three weeks, American forces developed a methodical approach to reducing PAVN positions. Once the enemy was located, massive amounts of firepower (both artillery and air strikes) were applied, followed by an infantry assault to secure to objective. In most instances, PAVN forces fought tenaciously, bloodying the Americans, before vanishing into the jungle. Key firefights in the campaign occurred on Hills 823, 724, and 882. As these fights were taking place around Dak To, the airstrip became a target for PAVN artillery and rocket attacks.
The worst of these took place on November 12, when rockets and shellfire destroyed several aircraft as well as detonated the base's ammunition and fuel depots. In addition to the American forces, Army of Vietnam (ARVN) units also took part in the battle, seeing action around Hill 1416. The last major engagement of the Battle of Dak To began on November 19, when the 2nd Battalion of the 503rd Airborne attempted to take Hill 875. After meeting initial success, the 2/503 found itself caught in an elaborate ambush. Surrounded, it was not relieved until the next day.
Resupplied and reinforced, the 503rd attacked the crest of Hill 875 on November 21. After savage, close-quarters fighting, the airborne troopers neared the top of the hill, but were forced to halt due to darkness. The following day was spent hammering the crest with artillery and air strikes, completely removing all cover. Moving out on the 23rd, the Americans took the top of the hill after finding that the North Vietnamese had already departed. By the end of November, the PAVN forces around Dak To were so battered that they were withdrawn back across the border ending the battle.
Aftermath:
A victory for the Americans and South Vietnamese, the Battle of Dak To cost 376 US killed, 1,441 US wounded, and 79 ARVN killed. PAVN casualties are estimated between 1,000 to 1,445 killed. The Battle of Dak To saw US forces drive the North Vietnamese from the Kontum Province and decimated the regiments of the 1st PAVN Division. One of the "border battles" of late 1967, the Battle of Dak To did accomplish a key PAVN objective as US forces began to move out from cities and lowlands. By January 1968, half of all US combat units were operating away from these key areas.
Selected Sources
From, Kennedy Hickman, Military History About.com, 11/12/07
Crusades: Battle of Montgisard
From Kennedy Hickman,
Your Guide to Military History.
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Conflict:
The Battle of Montgisard was part of the Ayyubid-Crusader War (1177-1187) which was fought between the Second and Third Crusades.
Dates:
Baldwin IV won his victory over Saladin on November 25, 1177.
Armies & Commanders:
Crusaders
- King Baldwin IV
- Raynald of Chatillon
- Odo de St Amand
- 375 knights, 80 Templars, several thousand infantry
Ayyubids
- Saladin
- 26,000-27,000 men
Battle Summary:
In 1177, the Kingdom of Jerusalem faced two major crises, one from within and one from without. Internally, the issue involved who would succeed sixteen year-old King Baldwin IV, who, as a leper, would not produce any heirs. The most likely candidate was the child of his pregnant, widowed sister Sibylla. While the nobles of the kingdom sought a new husband for Sibylla, the situation was complicated by the arrival of Philip of Alsace who demanded that she be married to one of his vassals. Evading Philip's request, Baldwin sought to form an alliance with the Byzantine Empire with the goal of striking at Egypt.
While Baldwin and Philip schemed over Egypt, the leader of the Ayyubids, Saladin, began preparing to attack Jerusalem from his base in Egypt. Moving with 27,000 men, Saladin marched into Palestine. Though he lacked Saladin's numbers, Baldwin mobilized his forces with the goal of mounting a defense at Ascalon. As he was young and weakened by his disease, Baldwin gave effective command of his forces to Raynald of Chatillon. Marching with 375 knights, 80 Templars under Odo de St Amand, and several thousand infantry, Baldwin arrived at the town and was quickly blockaded by a detachment of Saladin's army.
Confident that Baldwin, with his smaller force, would not attempt to interfere, Saladin moved slowly and looted the villages of Ramla, Lydda and Arsuf. In doing so, he allowed his army to become dispersed over a large area. At Ascalon, Baldwin and Raynald managed to escape by moving along the coast and marched on Saladin with the goal of intercepting him before he reached Jerusalem. On November 25, they encountered Saladin at Montgisard, near Ramla. Caught by total surprise, Saladin raced to reconcentrate his army for battle.
Anchoring his line on a nearby hill, Saladin's options were limited as his cavalry was spent by the march from Egypt and subsequent looting. As his army looked upon Saladin's, Baldwin summoned the Bishop of Bethlehem to ride forward and raise aloft a piece of the True Cross. Prostrating himself before the sacred relic, Baldwin asked God for success. Forming for battle, Baldwin and Raynald's men charged the center of the Saladin's line. Breaking through, they put the Ayyubids to rout, driving them from the field. The victory was so complete that the Crusaders succeeded in capturing Saladin's entire baggage train.
Aftermath:
While exact casualties for the Battle of Montgisard are not known, reports indicate that only ten percent of Saladin's army returned safely to Egypt. Among the dead was the son of Saladin's nephew, Taqi ad-Din. Saladin only escaped the slaughter by riding a racing camel to safety. For the Crusaders, approximately 1,100 were killed and 750 wounded. While Montgisard proved a dramatic victory for the Crusaders, it was the last of their successes. Over the next ten years, Saladin would renew his efforts to take Jerusalem, finally succeeding in 1187.
Selected Sources
